Balatik: Katutubong Bituin ng mga Pilipino
Balatik: Ancient Stars of the Filipino People
By Dante L. Ambrosio
(Translated by K.S. Villoso)
Whenever the ancient Filipinos gaze upwards, they behold not just the heavens. They also see the history of their civilization, particularly with regards to the stars. Just like in other cultures, they stamped their essence upon the sky, claiming it for their own. The sky formed the basis of their reason, conduct, and way of living, conceiving a treasury of perspective, beliefs, knowledge, and behaviour according to the heavens.
As far back as the early days of civilization, people have known of the blessings and perils brought by the skies as part of the forces of nature. From the heavens, they glimpsed the rays of the sun, the moon, and the stars that—whether it be day or night—give brightness and splendour to the world. The rhythm of their lives followed the rise and fall of the sun, the certainty of the waxing and waning of the moon, and the eventual emergence of the stars.
It was only in 1982 that it was discovered that Filipinos had their own stars. At the time, I had read the stories on Magbangal of the Bukidnon (Cole, 1956). I previously knew about Tatlong Maria (Three Marys), Supot ni Hudas (Judas’s Sack), Krus na Bituin (Cross of Stars), and Koronang Tinik (Crown of Thorns) of the Tagalogs, which was taught to me by my grandmother. But these were stars of the Christians, which I didn’t put much value on. It was only when I learned of the stars of the Teduray of the Cotabato that Schlegel named in 1987 according to modern astronomy did I become certain: Filipinos have their own stars! My interest in the ancient knowledge as taught by the stars, and their influence on the lives of people, blossomed. This study is called ethnoastronomy, the study of civilization with regards to astronomy.
This sort of study holds great value for historians. It involves the analysis of ancient viewpoints and the formation of the reasoning, conduct, and way of living of our ancestors. In other words, ethnoastronomy serves as an addition to the study of the essence, consciousness, civilization, and history of the Filipino people. It is not only in parsing through documents or reading into ancient artefacts, but in considering the prevailing viewpoints, beliefs, knowledge, and behaviour do we catch a glimpse of the nation’s pre-colonial past. Through these studies, we can connect the present and the past, and grant significance to the changes brought over by colonial times.
Our study reveals the similarities of various indigenous civilizations, unearthing a wealth of knowledge while also highlighting the unique characteristics of each. Through this, we were able to shed light on forgotten fragments of history, gathered from national records and scholarly accounts. From all of this emerges different scenarios of how the skies and stars formed the basis of Filipino civilization.
A Constellation of Stars
The stars are one of the heavenly phenomena valued by ancient Filipinos. They form constellations based on the things they value in life. In the stars, they see the shapes of these things, and so ascribe it to the heavens. Using mythology, they create explanations over why these are able to make their way to the sky and why people are guided by these to behave a certain way. The process of stamping their likeness unto the stars also influences their reasoning and behaviour.
Filipinos have similar names for the stars. Bitúin is what they are called in Binukid, Manobo, Sambal, and Tagalog. It is bitúon in Aklanon, Bicol, Hiligaynon, Maguindanao, Samar-Leyte, and Cebu. It is bitúun in Kinamigin, Mansaka, Sama, Tagbanua, and Tausug. Lastly, it is bitún in Gaddang, Ibanag, Itawis, and Subanun. There are exceptions. In Samar and Tawi-tawi, they are called mamahi. In the meantime, the Mangyan call them magirim and panggasam while those in the Kordilyera call them talaw. To the Ilocanos, the poetic term is baggak.
The similarities can be attributed to the proto-Austronesian language that became widespread throughout the Philippines from 3,000 BC. The various constellations are also rooted in this language: balatik (a trap for wild boars), bubu (fishnet), kupu (butterfly), lepu (crooked or crippled), manuk (bird), niyu (brown coconut), pudun (a coil of rope or thread), pungul (severed), rara (red), and timbang (equal) (Blust, Etymologies I; Dempwolff).
Based on the usage of these terms in slash-and-burn land clearing, we can infer the period from which these ancient stars emerged. They are part of the body of stars used to give enough time for each stage of slash-and-burn land clearing. In reports made by Loarca in 1582 and Plasencia in 1589, they mentioned the Pleiades as a sign of the changes in weather and the beginning of planting season (Loarca 165; Plasencia 186). These terminologies also indicate the similarity in how these stars were used throughout the islands. San Buenaventura, San Antonio, Mentrida, and Lisboa collected vocabulary on the constellations they encountered from the Tagalog, Hiligaynon, and Bicolano people during the 17th century.
The 20th century saw an increase of interest on the study of ethnic groups. The names of the various constellations are among the reported findings. Revel identified 24 constellations of the Palawan in Palawan. Matuan and Sclegel identified six constellations based on the land clearing of the Maranao of Lanao and the Teduray of Cotabato (Matuan, 93-94; Schlegel 16-20). Casiño discovered 16 stars of the Jama Mapun of Tawi-tawi (16-18). Based on the studies from the Sama of Tawi-tawi, I identified more than 15 stars despite having gathered more than 60 names. This is because a single group of stars have different names amongst the Sama, Tausug, Tagalog, and Bisaya who live in the archipelago (Ambrosio, 2000 43-64).
Despite the fact that the names of these stars have been reported by other scholars, these were not attributed to any from modern astronomy. Frake mentioned seven used by the Sindangan Subanen in their land clearing (80). Cole tells of eight constellations of Bukidnon in his writings in 1956 (124-125). Magos named six constellations from Antique (86). In the meantime, Kasberg reported 16 constellations of the Gubatnon Mangyan of Mindoro, though he didn’t use their traditional names (68). Based on the reports made by Lambrecht and Vanoverbergh on the prayers and rituals of the Ifugao and Kankanaey of the Cordillera, they discovered ten or more stars which people prayed to. (Lambrecht Ritual 1 112-113; Vanoverbergh, Kankanaey 90-91).
Balatik and Moroporo
Based on the various reports, two groups of stars appear to be known throughout the archipelago—the Balatik and Moroporo.
Why were these two widespread? There are many reasons. First, they are a spectacle. Balatik is comprised of various bright stars, the most prominent of which are three in a row, spaced equally from each other. These are the Tatlong Maria or Tres Marias (Three Marys) of the Tagalog and known as Orion’s Belt in modern astronomy. The stars of Orion form the shape of the trap of the balatik, which is widely used across the archipelago.
Pleiades also stands out. It is made up of bright stars in groups of six to seven, a feature not seen in other formations. This is called Supot ni Hudas (Judas’s Sack) or Rosaryo (Rosary) of the Tagalog.The ancient name for this is mapulon, while in the Visayan islands and Mindanao, it is called Moroporo.
These stars are strategically located in two places. They are commonly seen across the islands from October to May. They shine in the south-east, passing over the top and setting in the north-west, close to the path followed by the sun and moon. These stars pass through the middle of the sky far longer than others in the north or south of the sky.
Because of all of this, both Balatik and Moroporo are used to mark everyday activities, especially land clearing. This is the most important reason for the widespread renown of Balatik and Moroporo across the archipelago. They emerge alongside conditions necessary for land clearing. This land is designated from November to December and cleared from January to February; afterwards, the undergrowth is dried in the heat of March and April, and burned in the middle of April, before the end of May brings about the start of the monsoon. To determine each stage, land clearers follow the change of position of Balatik and Moroporo as dusk falls.
Balatik
Based on Plasencia’s reports from 1589, Balatik was mentioned as one of the three stars of the Tagalogs. Instead of Orion, he mentions Osa Mayor (Ursa Major) (Plascencia 186-189). This mistake was corrected in subsequent reports. Noceda, Sanlucar, San Antonio, and San Buenaventura identified Balatik as ballista, a type of trap, and the Tres Marias of the Spanish as a constellation of stars (29; 29; 314). For the Tagalogs of Tayabas, the balatik is a device used to trap or kill animals in which a sharp implement is attached to a lever with a recoil; it is also a group of stars. (Manuel, 55).
To the Hiligaynon, Mentrida notes that these stars are equivalent to Astillejo (45). In Spanish astrology, astillejos is comprised of the stars Castor and Pollux of the Gemini (de la Cadena 63). It is not clear if Mentrida is Scott’s source, but based on what he wrote in 1994, he attributes the stars of Gemini to the Balatik of the Visayans (124).
The namesake trap of Balatik is comprised of more than the three stars of Orion. Based on Scott’s description, it appears to be a bow made up of two pieces of wood which has been buried in the ground in the shape of an X, attached to a bell and an arrow, and with a net made of vines which flicks whatever touches it into the arrow’s path (Barangay 44).
In the meantime, according to Cole in Wild Tribes of Davao District, Mindanao, the tip of a branch or end of a tree is tied with vines, which is pulled down to set the trap. This is kept in this position by a trigger made of a net, which is loosened by the slightest touch. A spear or arrow is attached to the branch or tree, which springs the moment the trap is triggered (Cole, Wild Tribes 187).
The differences of the Balatik in the sky can be attributed to the various makes of the actual trap. One resembles Scott’s description. The bow is based of the stars Rigel, Betelgeiuse, Saiph, and Bellarix. The Orion’s belt is the middle of the arrow, while Orion’s sword is the trigger. Another resembles Cole’s description: Orion’s belt is the arrow while Orion’s Sword is the bow. This is the same arrangement taught to me by the Badjao of Tawi-tawi and is similarly the same described by Revel in Binawagan magsasauad on the trap and stars of the Palawan of Palawan (Revel 213).
Other groups attribute different names and meaning to these stars (Kahon 1). To the Jama Mapun, Batik is a boar about to pounce (Casiño, 17). Despite the difference in names, the Balbalays of the Ifugao and the Binawagan Magsasawad of the Palawans also refer to traps similar to the balatik (Lambrecht, Ritual VII 14; Revel 213).
The Seretar of the Teduray is a hunter whose body is Orion’s Belt. Their right hand is Betelgeuse and their left hand is Rigel. Their bolo, which is still in its scabbard, is Orion’s Sword (Schlegel 18). Magbangal of the Bukidnon is similarly a hunter and land clearer. Although Cole doesn’t explicitly mention it, it seems as if he is also made up of the stars of Orion (Bukidnons 124). Both are part of the astrology of the Teduray and Bukidnon.
In the meantime, the stars of the Igorot and Ilocanos appear differently. According to Scott, the Igorots as a whole use the star Gaganayan for agriculture. He attributed the Gagan-ayan (warping frame) of the Ilocanos to Tres Marias (Scott Barangay 259, 281). This is Trismariiya to the Itbayaten of Batanes and Atlung Maria to the Kapampangan (Lacsamana-Ambrosio; Yamada, 161).
Table 1: Ancient Names of the Stars of Orion
Four things become clear when one considers the Balatik: it is ancient and pre-Hispanic as both a trap and a star; it is known throughout the islands as a trap and as a constellation; its names are correlated to hunting but is associated with agriculture; and it is collectively used for slash-and-burn land clearing. There was also a time it served as a reminder for Bagobo rituals involving human sacrifice (Cole Wild Tribes 114, 116).
Moroporo
Moroporo is the second group of stars known throughout the islands. In modern astronomy, it is known as Pleiades (Table 2). According to Loarca, the appearance of these stars coincides with the first month of the Panay people, which they call Ulalen. This signals the beginning of planting season. Loarca doesn’t specify which season these stars rise or what the Panay people call the stars themselves (165).
In 1994, Scott mentions that Pleiades appears in the month of June and that it is called Moroporo, “boiling lights” or a flock of birds (123). It is true that these stars appear at dawn during June, but Loarca makes it clear that their appearance closely follows the stages of land clearing. This means that it is not possible that Ulalen happens during June, when the monsoon begins, nor could it follow the clearing of land or the burning of the undergrowth.
Jocano correctly equates Ulalen with the month of January (“Corn and Rice” 456-457). First, it follows the days when it begins getting warmer, which coincides with the beginning of harvest as Loarca mentioned. Second, during this month, Pleiades would already be high in the eastern sky at sundown, and follows the warmer days which is necessary for land clearing. Third, the Ulalong of the Sulod people of Panay, which marks the beginning of their land clearing, happens right during January.
Scott is correct in recognizing Pleiades as the ancient Moroporo based on reports by the Spanish and terminology from other ethnic groups. The Hiligaynon of Panay (Mentrida 266) calls it Molopolo. According to Lisboa, it is Moroporo to the Bicolanos (247). Various places in Visayas and Mindanao still call it by the same name: Murupuru to the Antique and Tagbanua of Palawan; Molopolo to the Bukidnon of Bukidnon, Mulupulu to the Arumanen Manobo of Cotabato and Manapuru of the Palawan of Palawan (Fox 45; Cole Bukidnons 124; Magos 86; Maquiso 132; and Revel 215).
Plasencia says that the Tagalogs know these stars as “seven small goats” or siete cabrillas of the Spanish. According to him, Pleiades is also called Mapolon by the Tagalog. Plasencia also states that due to their knowledge of these stars, the Tagalogs became proficient in the changes in season. This indicates that, just like the Panays, the Tagalogs used Pleiades as a reminder of the seasons and planting (Plasencia 186; Raventos and Gold 39).
The Tagalogs amended their vocabulary once Plasencia identified these stars as Pleiades. San Antonio and San Buenaventura also points Mapolon out as Pleiades and the seven goats of the Spanish (172; 130). To Noceda and Sanlucar, these are Mapolong or Polonpolon (201, 259). 300 years before, Manuel reported that the Tagalogs of Tayabas has a star called Mapulon. According to his description, there is no doubt that this is also the Mapolon of the ancient Tagalogs. Up until now, the Tagalogs of Laguna use the name Mapulong for these stars (Manuel, 249; Jocano and Veloro 46).
Few scholars gave meaning to the ancient names for Pleiades. The molopolo refers to a type of plant known to the Tagalogs, according to Noceda and Sanlucar. According to Encarnacio, the Visayans also use molopolo to refer to plants from the malvas (mallow) family, which includes Hibiscus. According to Scott, the moroporo are “boiling lights” or a flock of birds, while the Palawan uses manopuru to refer to sweet potatoes (Encarnacio 237; Noceda and Sanlucar 396; Revel 215; Scott Barangay 123). Despite the similarities in how these words are written or said, their meanings differ.
Manuel has a longer explanation on th e Mapulon and pulon of the Tagalogs of Tayabas. First, he notes that these are “a group of stars where one is surrounded by many.” Second, he adds that “it is a scale inside six other scales,” referring to a fighting rooster’s foot. Third, it refers to neatly braided rope or thread (Manuel, 249, 295). This last one is similar to the meaning of “pulun na ikid” or a group of interwoven strands as mentioned by Serrano-Laktaw (1087).
Table 2: Ancient Names of Pleiades
According to indigenous anecdotes, Pleiades was often mentioned alongside two constellations—Hyades and Orion. Hyades is a triangle-shaped group of stars between Pleiades and Orion. They form part of the constellation Taurus, just like Pleiades.
According to Cole, to the Bukidnons, Molopolo is a hill which serves as Magbangal’s hunting ground, and Baka (Hyades) is the jaw of the wild boar he killed (Bukidnons 124). To the Teduray, the Kufukufu (Pleiades)are flies that gathered on Baka (Hyades), the jaw of the boar which the hunter Seretar (Orion) killed (Schlegel 16-18). In Palawan, Manapuru refers to a mound of sweet potatoes; Sangat at bjak (Hyades) is the jaw and tusks of a wild boar that ate the sweet potatoes and was snared by Binawagan magsasawad (Orion) (Revel 214). To the Jama Mapun, Mopo is a boar, Batik is a trap, and though Casiño didn’t explicitly say so, Sangat bawi is quote possibly also Hyades, the jaw of the boar which according to him was shaped like the letter V (Casiño, 17).
All of these unanimously describe Hyades as the jaw of a wild boar, while Pleiades has different interpretations: hill, flies, sweet potatoes, and wild boar. In mapping out the stars, we can refer to the ancient Pleiades, Hyades, and Orion as stars used for hunting.
There are a few things that can be said of Moroporo: it is known all throughout the islands, the words referring to it (especially in central and southern Philippines) are similar despite having different meanings, it was known by some ethnic groups before pre-Hispanic times, and it is clear that these names all refer to hunting and land-clearing, just like Balatik.
Other Constellations
The Spanish reported other constellations in their gathered vocabulary. They detailed the following in their ethnographic reports.
Tagalog. Plasencia recognized three stars of the Tagalogs—the Tala, a star in the morning (186). During the 18th century, several other Tagalog stars were added by Noceda and Sanlucar. They recognized some, but not others. Other than Balatik, Mapolong, and Tala, they noted Macapanis (Bootes or Acturus), May carang (the roof of a cart or carriage), Hampil (a blockade for a cart or carriage), Camalyng (Southern Cross), Tanglao daga (Venus), Bulansaguan and Balais (Noceda and Sanlucar 27, 29, 53, 79, 135, 197, 201, 316, 327).
Manuel’s notes greatly contributed to deciphering the meaning of Mapulon. But he himself did not name some of the stars he mentions. The Spanish encountered two of the stars from Tayabas—Balatik and Mapulon. Apart from this, Manuel also mentions the Talang Batugan (Morning star or Talang Bakero), Talang Bilaran, Bituing Bumbong and Krus na Bituin. In his depictions, one can infer the appearance and location of these stars.
It is clear that the Talang Batugan refers to a star that rises in the early morning. The reason it is called batugan is because it is big, weak, and moves slowly and with difficulty. Talang Bilaran is comprised of four stars beside Mapulon while the constellation of Bituing Bumbong can be found above the Krus na Bituin (Manuel, 72, 357-358). According to Serrano-Laktaw, Talang Bakero are stars for herders (1245).
Visayan
Several Visayan stars are mentioned by the first Spanish priests. Encarnacion notes Losong (Ursa Major), Alimango (mud crab), Lobi, and Malopolo (11, 212, 222, 237). Scott explains that lubi refers to a coconut tree and losong is a thresher for rice stalks; he recognized the constellations Alimango as Aris and Losong as the Big Dipper (Barangay 123-124). Losong is still recognized today, as taught to me by a Samarnon friend.
Bicolano
Lisboa also notes several Bicolano stars. Other than the aforementioned Moroporo (Pleiades) and Lubang (Orion), he listed the following: Macadadamlag (Venus), Paglong (Southern Cross), Pogot (a signal used by fishermen and during typhoons), Soag (four stars in a square that signals midnight) and Torong (three stars that signals a typhoon if they emerge directly overhead at night) (239, 247, 258, 269, 289, 407, 550).
Ilocano
Carro discovered three stars of the Ilocanos: Gagan-ayan (Orion), Maroprop (Pleiades) and Sunay (Southern Cross and Northern Cross). (Vanoverbergh English-Iloko Thesaurus 199, 207, 224, 288).
As previously mentioned, scholars of the 20th century made note of many stars from other ethnic groups. In this instance, some ascribed these to terminology from modern astronomy, described the myths associated with the stars, and stated the certainty of their association with various tasks, particularly land clearing.
Teduray
Schlegel notes six stars the Teduray uses to help with planting (16-21). He described how these stars were used in stories associated with land clearing, despite also noting that three of these stars are associated with hunting myths.
According to Teduray legend, Fegeferafad (part of Canis Major, Canis Minor, and Gemini) is a nickname for Keluguy, foster father of the cousins Kufukufu (Pleiades), Baka (Hyades), and Seretar (Orion). In the heavens, they assume the shape of humans whose heads (Procyon) are covered with a bandana and who bear rooster wings (Gomeisa), symbolizing courage. Both stars are in the constellation of Canis Minor. Fegeferafad’s left hand holds the stars of Canis Major (Sirius and Murzim) and their right hand are the stars of Gemini (Castor and Pollux).
Singkad (part of Aquila) and Kenogen (Delphinus) are a married couple. Singkad is another foster father of the cousins. The faintest stairs near Singkad are Kenogon’s comb. These two groups are expected to appear in the early morning while the Teduray follow the first four at night to mark the stages of their land clearing.
In their myths, Lagey Lingkuwus leads the Teduray towards inged Tulus, the place where the Dakilang Diwata dwell, to settle there. Tulus will then create new Teduray to take care of the forests. In order to ease their burdens in land clearing, Tulus asked Fegeferafad to stay behind and stand on the sky to serve as a star to guide in planting. All six agreed.
Bukidnon
Natives pointed out nine groups of stars to Cole, which appeared between 7 pm to dawn on February 1910: Magbangal, Balokau, Baka, Molopolo, Ta-on, Sogob-a-ton, Malala, Ti-ok, and Taku. (Bukidnons 123-125). On this date, there is no doubt that these included the stars of Pleiades, Orion, Aquila, and others mentioned. Pleiades is probably Molopolo, Orion is Magbangal, and Hyades is Baka based on their description.
Magbangal resembled a dipper at 45° southeast when it was first pointed out to Cole. Magbangal’s remaining hand is Balokau, a group of stars in a row below Magbangal. Baka are stars in the shape of a triangle and is the jawbone of the wild boar Magbangal killed. Beyond the top of these, resembling a small dipper, is Molopolo, which serves as the hill where Magbangal hunts. The L-shaped Ta-on, Magbangal’s axe, can be seen in the early morning; Sogob-a-ton, which resembles a bamboo plate, can similarly be seen at this time. The circular Ti-ok is Magbangal’s pet house gecko, while Malala is their bolo. The star at night is called Taku, which means “thief,” because it disappears (sinks) the moment other stars emerge.
According to the Bukidnon, Magbangal used to have great power. When they went to do some land clearing, their spouse bade them to stay home instead. But Magbangal insisted. The spouse heard the trees falling, indicating Magbangal had proceeded with their task. But when they went to look for them, they found them asleep. Their axe and bolo were clearing the land by themselves. Only then did they become certain of how powerful Magbangal was. At that moment, Magbangal’s hand was severed by the axe. In anger, they ordered their spouse to go to the river and turn into a fish. Magbangal then ascended to the heavens to become a guiding star for the Bukidnon’s land clearing.
Jama Mapun
Casiño gathered 16 stars in Mapun, Tawi-tawi, though he didn’t recognize all of them (16-19).
The bobo is an implement for catching fish. It is a box made of bamboo with ropes that allow it to be pulled to the surface after being submerged in a fishpond. It resembles the Big Dipper, which is called Bobo by the Jama Mapun. This terminology has widespread use among Dempwolff’s list of proto-Austronesian languages.
Batik (Orion’s Belt)is a trap for the Mopo (Pleiades) wild boar. Casiño stipulates the Mopo is pre-Islamic. Since Muslims are forbidden from eating pork, it is likely the pre-Islamic Jama Mapun named it. Mopo is used as a signal to mark the beginning of planting season. Bunta on the other hand is a pufferfish, which is being speared by the Anak Datu (The Datu’s Children, which is Alpha and Beta Centauri), two fisherfolk on a boat. Niyu-niyu (coconut tree) is the bearer of the wind, while the direction is indicated by Sibilut (Polaris). Tanggong (which is part of Aquila) are three stars side-by-side, which is made up of Tohng, Masikla, and Mayuyu. Even though the stars of the Jama Mapun are associated with fishing and hunting, Tanggung is associated with the planting of rice. On top of serving as a signal for planting, it also explains why people need to plant rice in the first place.
According to mythology, Tohng, Masikla, and Mayuyu are married partners. One day, Masikla was cooking grass leaves. They instructed Mayuyu to keep watch over the stove while they forage at the beach. They also told them not to peek inside the clay pot while they are away. But Mayuyu decided to look inside the pot. Its contents were half grass and half rice. When Masikla returned, they discovered Mayuyu’s disobedience. Because of what Mayuyu had done, Masikla condemned people to suffer hardship before they can eat. If Mayuyu had obeyed, people would be able to cook and eat plain grass.
On another occasion, Tohng went to their land clearing. Just like the stories of Magbangal of the Bukidnon, Mayuyu followed. They discovered Tohng playing on a flute while their axe and bolo cut trees by themselves. Mayuyu whipped Tohng for being lazy. The axe and bolo fell to the ground, never to work again. Tohng became angry and said that if Mayuyu hadn’t confronted them, then people wouldn’t have to labour. Because of this, Tohng and Masikla left Mayuyu to go to the heavens. Mayuyu followed them, anyway. All three became the group of stars Tanggong and became markers in the preparation of the harvest.
These stories are not far from the ones that Hadji Hamad Putal of the Tungkallang, Sanga-Sanga, Tawi-tawi told me of the star Paliyama (Aquila) of the Sama and Matuan’s testimony of the star Dalomampao (Aquila) of the Maranao (95).
The Jama Mapun have other stars Casiño didn’t recognize: Sangat bawi which could be the jaw of a wild boar (Hyades), Kababasan (morning star), Bintang Gauk (evening star), Tendak (fish), Kabaw (blue sea crab), Niyu-Niyu punggul (a log cut from a coconut tree), Lumba-lumba (dolphin), and Manuk (bird).
Other than the ones Casiño mentioned, I discovered the names of other stars in my research in Tawi-tawi. Many of these are mixed with terminologies from Sama and Tausug.
The stars in Table 3 are the ones I normally hear about throughout the Tawi-tawi islands. These resemble the stars of the Jama Mapun, while they belong to Sama groups such as the Badjao. Mupu means “islands.” Anakdatu only has one star (Alpha Centauri) while its neighbour is called Sahapang (Beta Centauri). Casiño’s description is the same: Anakdatu spears Buntal (pufferfish; Southern Cross) using Sahapang, a three-pointed spear. The Sama calls Tanggong Paliyama, Niyu-niyu is Salokah (Scorpius), and Sibilut is Mamahi Uttara.
Many other stars were briefly mentioned, though these weren’t taught to me. Included is Abay kohap, Anting-anting, Basih, Bituin masawa, Bongsod, Duga-duga, Juhara, Kababbasan, Kababbasan madusta, Kalitan, Krus na Malaki, Krus na Maliit, Malala, Mamahi Kagang, Mamahi Magrib, Mamahi Pagi, Mamahi Satan, Mamahi Sumping, Mauk, Nganias, Sowk, Tagoh, Takaw kapog, Tanggong, Timbangan, Tohng.
Table 3: Stars of Tawi-tawi
Anakdatu (fisherman; Alpha Centauri),
Basung (Hyades),
Batik (trap; Orion’s Belt and Sword),
Bubu (an implement for catching fish; Big Dipper),
Buntal (pufferfish; Southern Cross),
Mamahi Uttara (Polaris),
Mupu or Pupu (islands; Pleiades),
Naga (snake or dragon; Milky Way),
Paliyama (maligai, “Tuhan’s house;” Tarazed, Altair, Alschain of Aquila),
Sahapang (a spear with three prongs; Beta Centauri),
Salokah (coconut tree; Scorpius),
Sangak-sangkap (chisel; Alpha, Beta, and Theta Lyrae),
Soka punggul (a mass of coconuts still attached to the tree; part of Grus),
Tunggal Bahangi (Tala at Night; Jupiter or Venus)
Palawan
Based on more than 20 years of correspondence with the Palawan, Revel discovered 24 groups of stars along with the associated myths and usage of these (206-284). Notice that nature and activities involving the sea, forest, and field form part of the objects the Palawan people ascribed to the sky. The stars for hunting of the Palawan resemble the stars of the Teduray and Bukidnon, while the stars for fishing resemble the stars of the Sama.
Revel has the most comprehensive account of the indigenous people’s stars compared to the rest. Unfortunately, most of his reports were written in French; I was only able to glean information from the parts written in English to make this report.
Table 4: Stars of Palawan
Anak Datuq (Saturn and Jupiter), Antatalaq/Buntatalaq (Venus), Asak (Cor Caroli),
Binawagan magakas (wild boar trap; part of Canis Major),
Binawagan magsasawad (wild boar trap; Orion’s Belt and Sword)
Bulalaw + paqajungja (a container for water; part of Lyra and Hercules)
Bungsud + Magipag (a mound, or a pair consisting of a sister-in-law and their spouse; part of Perseus),
Buntal + tataran at tampulung (pufferfish and sahapang; Southern Cross and part of Centaurus),
Duruj (chicken; part of Gemini),
Gubang ni Asak + salanaqan ja (Asak’s boat and spear; Ursa Major and Cor Caroli),
Inaq + alad ja (chicken and wing; part of Auriga),
Lakut at paraj (a container for seeds or grains; Coupe),
Lakut at sanglaj (a container for sweet potatoes; Corona Borealis),
Manapuru (a mound of sweet potatoes or Bihang’s fishing net; Pleiades),
Njug + wasaj (coconut tree and axe holder; part of Scorpius)
Pungur (part of Ophiuchus), Punggur + Sawa (tree and serpent; part of Serpens)
Sagab (container for water; part of Aquila), Salangan (part of Perseus),
Sangat at bjak (the jaw and tusk of a wild boar; Hyades),
Sjud ni Bihang (Bihang’s fishing net),
Taktampinak ni Asak (holder of Asak’s tobacco; part of Pgesus)
Taktampinak at magkapuqun (Libra), Tarung (yoke; Delphinus)
Bagobo
Cole mentions four groups of stars of the Bagobo in the western gulf of Davao: Balatik, Marara, Mamari, Bwaya. He did not recognize these despite the fact that he described and mentioned when these can be seen on the sky. Marara appears in the month of April. He attributes the appearance of this to the start of planting. In Bagobo myth, Marara is a person with only one hand and one foot. They bring cloudy weather at the hour of planting in order to hide their disabilities. The stars Mamari and Bwaya rise alongside this star towards the end of June (Wild Tribes 62, 86, 108). The stars indicated in these extend from Orion to Scorpius, though he is not sure which make up the entire constellation.
Cordillera
There are many ethnic groups in the Cordillera, which is why the stars have different names. Because of the geographic separation of these groups, these names do not resemble each other even within a single ethnic group. Scholars generally find the names of the stars inside prayers.
Vanoverbergh mentions that the Kankanaey often include the Corona Borealis and Aquarius in their prayers, but he did not mention if these are different from the ones he listed out in Table 5. Notice the differences between Batakagan of the Ibaloi (Cassiopeia) and Kankanay (Venus), as well as their Salabobo (Hyades of the Ibaloi) and Salibubu (Pleiades of the Kankanaey). Just like Moss, Vanoverbergh obtained these names from prayers (Moss 234). The Sipat and Tudong were mentioned in prayers concerning the offering of poultry, prayers for one who cannot stop wetting the bed, and for kentan ceremonies, where rice grains for planting are blessed before transportation. Salibubu, Binabbais, and Aquarius are also mentioned in prayers of offering of poultry (Vanoverbergh, “Kankanaey Religion” 90-91).
A few other stars from ethnic groups can be found in Table 6. As you can see, these are comprised of the aforementioned stars.
Table 5: Stars of the Cordillera
Ibaloi (Moss 234)
Balikongkong (Leo’s sickle), Batakagan (the brights stars of Cassiopeia),
Bodays (Orion’s Belt and Sword), Kros (krus of Canis Major),
Mamawas (Venus or Jupiter as morning stars),
Mauwa Balaya (five round stars of Auriga),
Pangal (a triangle in Lyra, which includes Vega), Salabobo (Hyades),
San apon (Pleiades),
Tachong (head and body of Scorpius), Tado (two pointing sticks of Little Dipper and Polaris),
Wadwadan (part of Bootes wherein Arcturus is in the middle),
Kankanaey (Vanoverbergh, Kankanaey Religion 90-91)
Aggiwanas (Milky Way), Balangay or Kinamalig (Ursa Major),
Batakagan (Venus or morning star), Binabbais (Orion’s Belt), Dopo, Ketma
Kinallaub (Coma Berenices), Laska, Liwliu, Pinadanga (Hyades), Sangbat,
Salibubu (Pleiades), Sipat (Dolphin), Takang, Tikem (Sagittarius),
Tudong (part of Andromeda, Pisces, Triangulum, and Aries),
Uling, Wayat
Khinaang Fontoc (Nolasco 7-8)
Farrais (part of Orion), Farrangay (part of Ursa Major), Salifuto (part of Pleiades)
Mayawyaw Ifugao (Lambrecht Ritual 1 113)
Agiwa’na (Sirius), Balbala’ys (five stars on Big Dipper’s handle), Ili’han,
Nachalipo’pong (a gathering of foam or bubbles), Nahiki’hig, Ni’pngot (crown),
Palpa’llo, Pawit (Venus), Pumi’-nal, Tumi’gan
Table 6: Other Groups of Stars
Antique (Magos, 86)
Balatik (nine stars), Kalamaganon (seven stars),
Krus (seven stars), Mag-asawa (two stars),
Murupuru (five stars), Tulughapunon (three stars)
Itbayat (Yamada, 161)
Ka’aaraw (Morning star), Narachid (Great Dipper or Little Dipper),
Nasayrin (looks like a hook; close to Narachid),
Pasdepen nu sumuxu (Evening star),
Tayaaru (seven stars in the shape of a triangle),
Tunankukurus a’aleket (Southern Cross),
Tinankukurus a’rakux (Southern Cross),
Trismariiya (three stars; Orion’s Belt)
Maguindanao (Sullivan)
Baka (Taurus), Balatik or Guibal (Orion), Biduk (Ursa Major),
Bituin Utala (Pole Star), Kalani (Venus), Langaw (Pleiades),
Lalan na Langaw (Milky Way), Makabanges
Manobo (Hires and Headland, 69-70)
Belatik (Orion), Bitu (an implement for catching fish, Delphinus),
Givang (Sirus and Murzim of Canis Major),
Lepu (a fractured bone; Altair, Alschain, Tarazed of Aquila),
Merara (Procyon of Canis Minor), Penikapan (Pleiades)
Maranao (Matuan, 93-94; McKaughan and Macaraya)
Anak o Karani (Delphinus), Baka, Dioang, Laya (Sagitta),
Lepo, Maboo, Madakel (Pleiades), Manok (Sirius, Mruzim, Procyon, Epsilon Carinae),
Mbangal (Orion), Dalomampao (three stars of Aquila),
Makabanges (Morning star)
Subanen (Frake 80)
Balansaan (basket), Gendaw belatik (Orion),
Gendaw glai (man),
Gendaw glibun (woman), Gendaw gubiyan (a plot of sweet potatoes; Pleiades),
Gendaw kulan, Gendaw parang (cogon grass), Gendaw selang (chin)
The Importance of Stars
Based on the information presented, it is clear that both ancient and present indigenous Filipinos put great value on the stars. This sentiment was expressed in several different ways.
A Picture of the Ancient Sky
Both ancient and present-day indigenous Filipinos have drawn their own map of the sky and the stars. They formed shapes around groups of stars and imprinted not just their heroes, but various implements, animals, and plants associated with hunting, fishing, and land clearing. In short, they marked the sky with their civilization. Whenever they looked at the sky, they saw not just a random scattering of stars, but an organized and systemized way of living. The sky formed a strict foundation of their essence.
Stars and Everyday Life
The stars were an important part of the day-to-day lives of Filipinos. The stars are strictly associated with hunting, land clearing, and various other tasks. Notice that despite the usage in land clearing, many stars were named according to hunting and fishing, which are both older practices. These are all tasks that, in order to be successful, requires the cultivation of insight, beliefs, knowledge, experience, behaviour, and usage since our early history.
A Council of Stars
Several stars were chosen to provide the foundation for a variety of tasks. Because the entire sky can be seen in the Philippines, great importance was placed on the stars in the north, the middle, and south especially since they emerge at night and early morning from October to June. In the north, the Big Dipper is often mentioned, along with Polaris, Aquila, Dephinus, and Lyra. In the south, it is the Southern Cross, Alpha and Beta Centauri, and Scorpius. In the middle, the entire archipelago put value on Orion, Pleiades, Hyades, Hemini, Canis Major, and Canis Minor.
Changes
Filipinos continued to hold these stars in high esteem despite the transformation of their beliefs and knowledge. The Christian Spaniards brought over their names for constellations, such as the Tatlong Maria (Three Marys), and attributed them to the pre-Hispanic stars. But the importance of these stars remained, especially when Christianity recognized it as a source of knowledge, a symbol of the birth of the Saviour and a guide during Saint Mary’s journey. At one point, Hen. Artemio Ricarte attempted to use the names of heroes from reformist and revolutionary movements on these stars in order immortalize their achievements as examples to follow for future generations (Ambrosio, Bayani ay Bituin 165-171). Though his efforts were unsuccessful, the stars became an important symbol of the revolutionary movement.
Conclusion
Even if the ancient stars are relatively unknown to the vast majority of educated Filipinos, the knowledge of these and the beliefs surrounding them have yet to be forgotten. While Filipino society is made rich by new beliefs and knowledge brought over by Christianity and modern science, the ancient map of the sky remains. Records have been kept by scholars since the 20th century. An explanation for this is because many of these tasks are still important to indigenous groups, especially with regards to land clearing.
These stars remain important to the Filipino people as a symbol—today, three of them bring light to the national flag.